Life on Hadrian’s Wall

How the Romans Survived on the Frontier of the Empire

Hadrian’s Wall was a defensive wall with numerous fortifications running across the entire width of Northern England. Built under Emperor Hadrian’s orders in AD 122, the wall stretched roughly 73 miles from the River Tyne in the east to the Solway Firth in the west, marking the northern boundary of Roman Britain. The soldiers and civilians who lived and worked along this frontier faced unique challenges, and for many years, it was the single most dangerous place to be posted as a Roman soldier. Their survival relied on a combination of military discipline, engineering prowess, trade, and adaptation to their dark and gloomy conditions.

(Today, most of Hadrian’s wall is little more than the ruined foundations, but there are still plenty of sites to see)

The Purpose of Hadrian’s Wall

The main purpose of the wall was to form a defensive line between the conquered lands of Britain, and the untamed lands of Scotland. With all their military might and wealth, the Romans could never establish a foothold in Scotland, and it remains one of the few countries the Romans failed to capture. The wall was not merely a defensive structure but a multi-functional frontier system. It controlled movement, served as a customs post, and symbolized Roman power. Though it wasn’t impenetrable, it deterred large-scale invasions and allowed for the regulation of trade and migration between Roman Britain and the tribal lands of present-day Scotland. The wall housed milecastles, turrets, and forts, which accommodated soldiers, traders, and their families, creating a network of settlements along its length.

(The remains of one of the stone turret watch towers that ran along the wall)

Roman Military Presence: Soldiers on the Wall

The garrisons along Hadrian’s Wall were primarily manned by auxiliaries—non-citizen troops recruited from across the Empire, including regions as far-flung as Syria, Spain, and North Africa. These soldiers brought diverse cultural practices but had to adapt to the cold, damp climate and remote location of northern Britain.

1. Housing and Shelter

Soldiers lived in well-constructed barracks within stone and wooden forts, or small military village-like forts. These stone buildings were designed to withstand the harsh weather. They were equipped with tiled roofs, stone walls, and sometimes hypocaust systems (underfloor heating) to combat the cold.

The organization of space within forts ensured that the soldiers could live efficiently. Barracks were communal, fostering camaraderie and discipline. Officers enjoyed separate quarters with greater comfort, reflecting their higher status.

2. Food and Supplies

Surviving on the Wall required a steady supply of food. The Romans employed an efficient supply chain, with grain, meat, olive oil, and wine transported from southern Britain or even further afield. Locally, soldiers supplemented their diet with fresh produce grown in nearby gardens and farms. Archaeological evidence from sites like Vindolanda reveals that bread, cheese, and locally sourced meat, such as mutton and pork, were staples of the Roman diet.

Fishing and hunting provided additional resources. The rivers and forests of northern Britain were abundant with fish, deer, and wild boar, which were often caught and cooked by soldiers in their spare time.

3. Clothing and Adaptation to Climate

The cold and wet climate of northern Britain was a stark contrast to the Mediterranean weather many soldiers were accustomed to. The Romans adapted by producing durable clothing. Woolen cloaks, tunics, and socks were common, and soldiers were issued hobnailed boots suitable for trekking through muddy terrain. Animal hides and furs provided additional warmth during the harsh winters.

(The remains of a bath house in the town of Vindolanda, a major settlement along the wall)

The Role of Engineering and Infrastructure

Hadrian’s Wall itself was a marvel of engineering, built primarily of stone and turf, depending on the local materials available. It was approximately 15 feet high in some areas, with a wide ditch (the Vallum) running parallel to enhance its defensive capabilities.

1. Building Techniques

The construction of the wall relied on local labor and skilled Roman engineers. Quarrying, cutting, and transporting stone were monumental tasks, requiring organization and expertise. In some regions, turf walls were used due to the scarcity of stone, demonstrating the Romans’ adaptability to local conditions.

2. Roads and Communication

The survival of those living on Hadrian’s Wall depended on a reliable communication and transportation network. The Stanegate, an earlier Roman road, connected forts like Vindolanda to the wall, ensuring the swift movement of troops and supplies. Additional roads facilitated trade and administrative duties, linking the frontier to the rest of Roman Britain.

Civilian Life on the Wall

While the Wall is often associated with soldiers, it also supported a significant civilian population, including traders, craftsmen, families, and local Britons. The settlements (vicus) outside forts were hubs of economic activity and cultural exchange.

1. Trade and Economy

Trade was vital for survival. Local Britons traded goods like wool, leather, and foodstuffs with the Romans in exchange for Roman coins, pottery, and other luxuries. Evidence of exotic goods, such as olive oil and wine amphorae, suggests a thriving trade network that connected this remote frontier to the heart of the Empire.

2. Craftsmanship

Craftsmen living near the Wall produced essential goods, from weapons and tools to pottery and textiles. Blacksmiths, potters, and tailors provided the garrison with necessary supplies, ensuring the smooth functioning of the military and civilian community.

3. Women and Families

The presence of women and children near the forts challenges the perception of Hadrian’s Wall as an exclusively male military zone. Soldiers who had completed their service and settled in the area often brought their families. Women played critical roles as cooks, weavers, and merchants, contributing to the economic and social fabric of the frontier.

(Fragments of some of the stone tablets recovered from sites along the wall)

Challenges and Adaptations

Life on Hadrian’s Wall was far from easy. The region’s isolation, harsh weather, and occasional skirmishes with local tribes presented constant challenges.

1. Conflict with Native Tribes

Relations with local tribes like the Picts were complex. While trade and cooperation occurred, tensions often flared into violence. The wall provided a strong defensive position, but soldiers had to be vigilant against raiding parties. Patrols, signal towers, and disciplined formations were essential for security.

2. Healthcare and Hygiene

Maintaining health was crucial for survival. The Romans implemented advanced sanitation systems, including latrines, bathhouses, and aqueducts, even on the frontier. Bathhouses served not only as places for cleanliness but also as social centers where soldiers and civilians could relax and bond.

Despite these efforts, diseases were a significant concern. The damp climate likely contributed to respiratory illnesses, and wounds from skirmishes could become infected. Roman medics, equipped with tools and knowledge of herbal remedies, provided basic medical care.

3. Isolation and Morale

Living on the frontier meant isolation from the bustling cities of the Empire. This isolation posed psychological challenges, especially during long winters. To maintain morale, soldiers engaged in games, sports, and religious practices. Temples and altars dedicated to Roman gods and local deities indicate the spiritual life of those on the Wall.

Evidence from Vindolanda: A Glimpse into Daily Life

The Vindolanda tablets, discovered near Hadrian’s Wall, offer a vivid picture of life on the frontier. These wooden writing tablets, preserved in the anaerobic conditions of the site, contain personal letters, official reports, and inventory lists.

One letter, written by a soldier, mentions the need for socks and underwear, emphasizing the challenges of staying warm. Another document records a birthday invitation from one officer’s wife to another, showing the social connections among the inhabitants.

Legacy of Hadrian’s Wall

Hadrian’s Wall served as a functioning frontier for nearly three centuries before the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the early 5th century. Its construction, operation, and eventual decline reflect the broader history of the Roman Empire—its ambition, adaptability, and eventual contraction.

Today, the Wall stands as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a reminder of the resilience and ingenuity of the people who lived on this distant edge of the Roman world. The survival of the Romans on Hadrian’s Wall was not just a matter of military might but a testament to their ability to adapt, organize, and thrive in challenging conditions.